Drug Trafficking in Afghanistan

Over its long biography, the cut across of events within Afghanistaniistan has been powerfully influenced by its geographic location, forbidding broad(prenominal) mountainous, rocky and barren terrain, at the crossroads of Central, West, and South Asia and astride the traditional invasion route into India from Central Asia and Persia. Overrun and busy by more than powerful foreign powers, including the Macedonians under horse parsley the Great, Persians, Mongols and Moghuls, Turks, British and Russians, the Afghan peoples have fiercely resisted alien conquerors. In particular, Afghanistan is " single of the few Muslim states never to be reduce by a non-Islamic power" (Nydrop & Seekins, 1986, p. xxii). Urban (1988) characterized Afghanistan as "one of the world's most unruly states . . . [possessing] an independence born of geographical withdrawnness and of loyalties incompatible with the centralized state" (p. 1). As Rashid (1987) has pointed out, "the historical traits that shake up the rising of the Afghan people against the Communist government in Kabul and the Soviet invasion . . . have also been fast of the agreement of the Afghan shelter" (The Afghan, p. 203)

According to Rashid (1987), "geography and history have combined to create in Afghanistan a deconcentrate and fiercely individualistic society" (The Afghan, p. 204). Political fragmentation has been boost by the topography and the evolution over time of a omnium-gatherum of distinct and often warring tr

Relations between Afghanistan and Pakistan were tense after 1948 because of the disputed Durand line by which the British delineated Afghanistan's eastern boundary with pre-partition India and shared large Pashtun populations between Afghanistan and Pakistan. Pakistan gave the Afghan mujahiddin indispensable support in their struggle against the Soviet invaders for several reasons: 1. Pakistani sympathy for the Afghan Pashtuns; 2. Pakistani fears of Soviet encroachment and anti-communist sentiment in Pakistan; and 3. American encouragement.

Ironically, successive moderate Pakistani regimes, acting through the ISI, channeled the start of their support to the most radical and fundamentalist Islamic elements among the mujahiddin who Nydrop & Seekins (1986) express "were ideologically and organizationally the most coherent groups in the resistance" (p. 275). According to Labrousse (1999), Pakistani support was extended to the Hezbi Islami of Gulbuddin Hekmatyar and the even more radical Osama bin Laden al Qeada network. Some of these groups, including al Qeada, at least initially, according to Nydrop & Seekins, supported Pakistan on "the Pashtunista materialization" (p. 277). The ISI made repeated and largely unsuccessful attempts to forge unity among the many Afghan exile groups. Finally, it switched its support in the mid-nineties to the most radical Afghan group of all, the Taliban, an amalgam of Pashtun-dominated students who had examine at Pakistani-based madrassas or religious schools, dissident army officers, mullahs and others. Meanwhile, the Pakistani government and merchants had become inextricably enmeshed in the Afghan-Pakistan do drugs trade and arms smuggling businesses. Pakistan together with only the join Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia were the only nations to accord the Taliban diplomatic recognition.

Spring). India and the United States. working capital Quarterly, 18:

According to Karbekov (1994, August 24), the Russian Mafia protects smugglers by wholesale bribery of
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